In August 2012, a new skull was found that dates back to 46,000 to 63,000 years. This discovery has
bolstered the genetic studies that point to modern humans inhabiting Laos and the surrounding
environs at that time, according to a report of the anthropological discovery published in the latest
edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). The skull has been found in Tam Pa Ling, “the Cave of the Monkeys” in northern Laos. It helps fill in this mysterious gap in the fossil record.
Advent of writing
But, man learnt writing only about 5000-8000 years ago. Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. It has been concluded that around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form. The earliest record of human writing may be the Dispilio Tablet, dated to the 6th millennium BC.So, we humans have not learnt writing for a long time, even today 10-12 % of the Human Population is illiterate. So, written history gives us account of only 0.1% of human history. Then, before the invention of printing technology in the medieval period, written documents were few and far between, and many of them have been lost due to being written on perishable materials like tree bark, palm leaf, papyrus and cloth. This means that the story of humankind has to be reconstructed largely with the help of non-literary or archaeological sources. These sources comprise objects – tools, weapons, ornaments, structures and
artistic creations which were produced and used by humans and which have survived the ravages of time.
Archaeology & Ethnoarcheology
Like other creatures, we humans also had to adapt ourselves to the environment, but unlike other beings, we have done so with the aid of technology and material culture (material objects like tools, weapons, utensils, houses,clothes, ornaments, etc). Since, the components of environment such as landscape, climate, flora and fauna also tends to change over time, archaeologists have to reconstruct past environments as well. Moreover, the biological remains of men have contributed to the understanding of not only his biological evolution but also cultural evolution. Archaeology, thus, is a multi-disciplinary study involving disciplines like geology, palaeontology, palaeobotany, biological anthropology and archaeological chemistry.
The origin of man begins in the Miocene period, around twenty million years ago, when the great apes, from whom the humans evolved, flourished in large areas of the Old World. Proto humans appeared in the Pliocene period, around five million years ago, and their cultural evolution largely took place during the Pleistocene period, which began about two million years ago. While biologically humans differ from the other apes in their upright posture, ability to walk on two feet or hind limbs, extremely versatile hand, and an unusually powerful brain, culturally they differ in their ability to manufacture and use tools.Then, the cultural changes take place at an uneven pace in different regions. In many parts of the world, for example in
India, prehistoric ways of life have survived more or less unchanged into modern times. The discipline, under which we study the non-industrialized societies, especially those practising hunting-gathering, fishing, primitive cultivation and pastoralism, is known as ethnoarchaeology. This study contributes to interpreting the archaeological record.
Absolute and Relative Chronology
Chronology of the past can be either relative or absolute.Relative chronology dates prehistoric events in relation to other events and geological deposits. The relative chronology tells us if a particular event is earlier or later than another event. On the other hand, the Absolute chronology dates events and phenomena in solar calendar years. The techniques such as Radiocarbon, K/Ar, fission tracks,thermoluminescence,TH230/U234 and dendrochronology are the techniques of absolute chronology. Out of then, the dendrochronology is applicable only to a period of a few thousand years and only in the few areas where old wood samples have been preserved. Then, the radiocarbon dating can date events up to sixty thousand years old. The other methods can, however, date events belonging to the entire prehistoric period. However, their application is dependent on the availability of suitable materials such as volcanic ash and rock at archaeological sites.
Prehistoric Period: Classification
The prehistoric period is divided into three ages, namely the stone, bronze and iron ages. These ages, besides being technological stages, also have economic and social implications. The Stone Age is divided into three periods, viz. Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. The suffix lithic indicates that technology in these periods was primarily based on stone. Economically the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods represent the hunting-gathering stage while the Neolithic represents the stage of food production, i.e. plant cultivation and animal husbandry.
Palaeolithic Era
The earliest human settlements in south Asia have been identified with an abundance of stone tool assemblages. The oldest known tools used by human beings were the simple cores and flakes, and they have been reported from the Siwalik hills at Riwat, near Rawalpindi in Pakistan. These tools date back to as old as two million years. However, the earliest reliable stone tool assemblages belong to two distinct cultural and
technological traditions viz. the Sohanian Culture and the Acheulian culture, which we study under the lower
Palaeolithic cultures.
Sohanian culture
The name is derived from the Sohan river, a tributary
of Indus. The sites of Sohanian culture were found in the Siwalik Hills in North-west India and Pakistan. The artefacts of
these stages were found in three river terraces which were correlated with the phases of the four-fold Pleistocene
glaciation. These stages have been named T1, T2 and T3. The
animal remains from this deposit included horse, buffalo,
straight-tusked elephant and hippopotamus, suggesting an
environment characterized by perennial water sources, tree
vegetation and grass steppes. The tools included the pebble
choppers, blades etc.
Acheulian culture
Acheulian culture, named after French site of St. Acheul, was the
first effective colonization of the Indian subcontinent and is
almost synonymous with the lower Palaeolithic settlements in
India. Remains of Acheulian culture have been found extensively
from the Siwalik hills in the north to areas near Chennai in the
south but not in the Western Ghats and the coastal region running
Palaeolithic Period: Some Points
The Palaeolithic period is further divided into three sub-periods,
namely lower, middle and upper.
Most Paleolithic sites in India developed in the Pleistocene period.
The tools made were generally of hard rock quartzite so the
Paleolithic man was called Quartzite Man.
The term Paleolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in
1865. It literally means "Old Stone Age." It was marked by the
hunting gathering nature.
Paleolithic Age spanned from 100000 years ago till 10000 years
ago. It is divided into 3 ages viz. lower Paleolithic age which spans
till 100000 years ago.
Middle Paleolithic which spans from 100000 years ago till 40000
years and upper Paleolithic which spans from 40,000 years to
10000 years ago.
Paleolithic tools were club, sharpened stone, chopper, hand axe,
scraper, spear, Bow and arrow, harpoon, needle, scratch awl etc.
Important Palaeolithic sites in India:
Lingsugur in Raichur district, Karnataka was the
first site to be discovered from India.
Lidder river Pahalgam , Kashmir
Sohan valley Punjab,
Banks of River Beas, Bangagnga
Sirsa Haryana,
Chittorgarh and Kota, Rajasthan,
River Wagoon, Kadamali basins Rajasthan.
River Sabaramati and Mahi basins (Rajasthan &
Gujarat),
Basins of river tapti, Godavari, Bhima and
Krishna
Koregaon, Chandoli and shikarpur (Maharashtra),
River Raro (Jharkhand),
River Suvarnrekha (Orissa),
Ghatprabha River Basin (Karnataka).
Pahalgam , Jammu & Kashmir
Belan Valley, Allahabad
Sinsgi Talav, Didwana , Nagaur Rajasthan
Hunsgi, Gulbarga in karnataka.
Attirampakkam in Tamilnadu
parallel to them, northeast India and the Ganga plains. Heavy rainfall and dense vegetation in the Western Ghats and
northeast India probably inhibited early man from colonizing these regions. In the case of the Ganga plains, the nonavailability
of stone and the swampy environment may have discouraged early man from occupying them.
The Acheulian culture was a hunter-gatherer culture that adapted to a variety of climates including but not
limiting to western Rajasthan, Mewar plain, Saurashtra, Gujarat, Central India, Deccan plateau, Chota Nagpur
plateau and the Eastern Ghats, north of the Cauvery river.
The sites are densely concentrated in the central India and the southern part of the Eastern Ghats as this area
received adequate rainfall, have perennial rivers, a thick vegetation cover and are rich in wild plant and animal
food resources.
The most known sediments yielding Acheulian assemblages are found in rock shelter III F-23 at Bhimbetka in Madhya
Pradesh . Acheulian people occupied a variety of microhabitats in different regions of India. The hunter-gatherers of
Acheulian culture were more concentrated in Nagaur and Didwana of Rajasthan, Vindhya Hills of Central India
(Bhimbetaka), Barkhera near Bhimbetka and at Putlikarar in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh. The rock shelter and
open-air sites represent seasonal camping places of the same populations.
Technology in Acheulian Culture
Acheulian tools include the choppers, chopping tools, polyhedrons, spheroids, discoids, handaxes,
cleavers, scrapers, denticulates, notches, flakes, blades and cores. They served a variety of functions like
hunting, butchering and skinning of animals, breaking bones for extraction of marrow, digging of roots
and tubers, processing of plant foods, and making of wooden tools and weapons.
The main raw material used for making the weapons of the Acheulian era was Quartzite, though occasionally quartz
was also used. In some parts of India such as Hulgi in Karnataka limestone was the main material.
Middle Palaeolithic Era
The Acheulian culture was slowly transformed into the middle Palaeolithic by shedding some of the tool types and by
incorporating new forms and new techniques of making them.
In some parts of the world, the middle Palaeolithic culture is associated with the
Neanderthal man (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis), however, no physical remains of
Neanderthal man have been found in India.
But, what has been found in India are the stone tools very similar to those found
with this hominid species in Europe and other regions.
The first general observation about the Middle Palaeolithic era is that in comparison to the lower Palaeolithic era, the
distribution of sites is sparse. The reason for this is that the middle Palaeolithic culture developed during the upper
Pleistocene, a period of intense cold and glaciation in the northern latitudes. In those times, the areas bordering
glaciated regions experienced strong aridity. However, generally, the middle
Palaeolithic populations occupied the same regions and habitats as the
preceding Acheulian populations.
Tools of middle Palaeolithic Era
Middle Palaeolithic tools were primarily made on flakes and blades made by
finely trimming the edges. Some of them were used for manufacturing the wooden tools and weapons and also for
processing animal hide. There are little hints of use of wooden shafts. In comparison to the lower Palaeolithic era, the
tools in middle Palaeolithic became smaller, thinner and lighter. Then, there was also a significant change in the choice
of raw material for making tools. While quartzite, quartz and basalt continued to be used, in many areas they were
replaced or supplemented by fine-grained siliceous rocks like chert and jasper. Tool Factory sites at chert outcrops occur
at many places in central India and Rajasthan.
Middle Palaeolithic Sites in India
Luni valley, around Didwana, Budha
Pushkar in Rajasthan
Valleys of the Belan, Son river, Narmada
river and their tributaries in central India
Some sparse sites in Chota Nagpur platea,
Deccan plateau and Eastern Ghats
Upper Palaeolithic Era
Upper Palaeolithic culture developed during the later part of the upper Pleistocene. There were very important changes
in the Palaeolithic-environemt which had its own impact on the
distribution and living ways of the humans. Some of them were as
follows:
There was extremely cold and arid climate in the high altitude
and northern latitudes.
There was extensive formation of deserts in North west India
The drainage pattern of western India became almost defunct and river courses shifted “westwards”.
Vegetation cover over most of the country thinned out during this period.
Coastal areas of southeastern Tamil Nadu, Saurashtra and Kutch developed quartz and carbonate dunes as a
result of the lowering of the sea level.
During terminal Pleistocene south-westerly monsoons became weak and the sea level decreased by scores of
metres.
Due to the harsh and arid climate, the vegetation was sparse though the faunal fossils show presence of grasslands. The
human population faced rusticated food resources and that is the reason that the number of Upper Palaeolithic sites is
very limited in the arid and semi-arid regions. The most opulent archaeological evidence of this period comes from the
Belan and Son valleys in the northern Vindhyas , Chota Nagpur plateau in Bihar , upland Maharashtra, Orissa and from
the Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh.
Tools of Upper Palaeolithic Era
The tools of Upper Palaeolithic Era are essentially characterized by blade and they show a marked regional diversity
with respect to the refinement of
techniques and standardization of
finished tool forms. The middle
Paleolithic tradition continued but
in this period we see the parallelsided
blades struck from
standardized prismatic cores.
Further, the prototypes of traps,
snares and nets were probably
used during the upper Palaeolithic
times. The bored stones and grinding slabs have also been found giving hints to advancements in the technology of tool
production. The bored stones are still used by fishermen as net sinkers in riverine fishing and marine fishing. The
Upper Palaeolithic settlements also show a distinct trend of being associated with permanent sources of waters. The
use of grinding stones might have been for processing plant foods such as wild rice.
The earliest form of art is found in the form of ostrich egg shell pieces engraved with cross-hatched designs from the
upper Palaeolithic period.
Mesolithic Era
The transition from the Palaeolithic period to Mesolithic period is marked by transition from Pleistocene period to
Holocene and favourable changes in the climate. The climate became warmer and humid and there was expansion of flora
and fauna contributed by increased rainfall. This led to availability of new resources to humans and thus the human beings
moved to new areas. This period is marked with increased population, though core economy of this period continued to
be based on hunting and gathering.
The more important fact about the Mesolithic era
in India is that the first human colonization of the
Ganga plains took place during this period. There are more than two hundred Mesolithic sites found in Allahabad,
The Upper Palaeolithic period has recorded a rich
panorama of fossils in the peninsular rivers of India.
One important discovery is of the ostrich egg shells
at over 40 sites in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra, which shows that ostrich, a bird
adapted to arid climate, was widely distributed in
western India during the later part of the upper
Pleistocene.
Bhimbetka Rock Shelters:
Bhimbetka rock shelters are located in Raisen
District of Madhya Pradesh, 45 km south of
Bhopal at the southern edge of the Vindhyachal
hills.
These served as shelters for Paleolithic age man
for more than 1 lakh years. This is the most
exclusive Paleolithic site in India which contains
the rock carvings and paintings. These paintings
belong to the Paleolithic, Mesolithic ages,
Chalcolithic, early-historic and even medieval
times. Bhimbetka is a World heritage Site.
Please note that it was earlier considered to be a Buddhist site and was later recognized as
Paleolithic site by Vishnu Shridhar Wakankar who is now also called "father of rock art in
India ". Bhimbetka Rock shelters were included in the world heritage list in 1970
The early period of Mesolithic age marks the hunting, fishing
and food gathering which turn to hunting, fishing, food
gathering as well as domesticating the animals.
Pratapgarh, Jaunpur, Mirzapur and Varanasi districts of Uttar Pradesh. This era also marks the dramatically increased
settlement in deltaic region of Bengal, the areas around Mumbai and other places of western coast of India.
Tools of Mesolithic Era
The tools are Mesolithic Era are smaller in size and better in finishing (more geometric) than the
Palaeolithic age and are called Microliths. These microliths are tiny tools of one to five centimetres
length, made by blunting one or more sides with steep retouch. The main tool types are backed
blades, obliquely truncated blades, points, crescents, triangles and trapezes. Some of the microliths
were used as components of spearheads, arrowheads, knives, sickles, harpoons and daggers.
They were fitted into grooves in bone, wood and reed shafts and joined together by natural
adhesives like gum and resin. Hunting-gathering way of life was slowly replaced by food
production from about 6000 B.C. Thus we see that the use of the bow and arrow for hunting had become common in
this period, which is evident from many rock paintings. The Bored stones, which had already appeared during the
upper Palaeolithic, became common during this, and the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. These are believed to have
been used as weights in digging sticks and as net sinkers. Similarly, shallow querns and grinding stones also occur at
several sites. These new technological elements led to enhanced efficiency in hunting, collection and processing of wild
plant foods.
Changes in Life- Mesolithic Era
From Nomadism to Sedentary settlements
There were some more interesting changes in lifestyle of the Mesolithic era humans. The favourable climate, better
rainfalls, warm atmosphere and increased food security led to reduction in nomadism to seasonally sedentary
settlement.
First Disposal of dead and making of Graves
The sedentary settlements lead to beginning of the
tradition of various ways of intentional disposal of
the dead. The first evidence of intentional disposal
of the dead comes from Mesolithic Era. Mesolithic
human burials have been found at Bagor in
Rajasthan, Langhnaj in Gujarat , Bhimbetka in
Madhya Pradesh etc. The dead were buried in
graves both in extended and crouched position. In
some cases two individuals were buried in a single
grave. The dead were occasionally provided with
grave offerings which include chunks of meat,
grinding stones, stone, bone and antler ornaments,
and pieces of haematite.
Emerging arts
The Mesolithic man was a lover of art, evident from the paintings in several thousand rock shelters in the Vindhyan
sandstone hills in central India. The paintings have been found in both inhabited and uninhabited shelters. The
paintings are made mostly in red and white pigments, made form the nodules found in rocks and earth. The subject
matter of the paintings are mostly wild animals and hunting scenes, though there are some related to human social and
religious life such as sex and child birth.
Food Production
The hunting-gathering way of life was slowly replaced by food production from about 6000 B.C. The core economic
activities were now included hunting, fowling, fishing and wild plant food gathering. The first animals to be
domesticated were dog, cattle, sheep and goat and the first plants to be cultivated were wheat and barley. This new
subsistence economy based on food production had a lasting impact on the evolution of human society and the
Mesolithic Era: Important Points
Agriculture had not fully developed.
The earliest evidence of domestication of animals has been provided by
Adamagarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan. A study has also
suggested cultivation of plants around 7000-6000 years back near Sambhar
lake in Ajmer Rajasthan.
The Pachpadra basin and Sojat Area of Rajasthan is a rich Mesolithic sites
and lot of microliths have been discovered.
Bagor in Rajasthan is the almost largest Mesolithic site in India. Another
major Mesolithic site in Rajasthan is Tilwara.
In Guajarat some places on the banks of river Sabarmati are Mesolithic sites
which include the Akhaj, Valsana, Hirpur, Langhanj etc.
Sarai Nahar Rai in Allahabad-Pratapgarh of Uttar Pradesh is a Mesolithic
site. Other sites in Uttar Pradesh are Morhana Pahar and lekkahia.
In Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetka along with Adamgarh are major Mesolithic
sites.
In Jharkhand Chhota nagpur plateau is a major Mesolithic site in India.
In Orissa Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh is a major Mesolithic site in
India.
In south India Godavari basin is rich in microliths,
The rock painting of Mesolithic period is found in Adamgarh, Bhimbetka of
Madhya Pradesh and Pratapgarh, Mirzapur of Rajasthan. Apart from the
animals, hunting scenes, the Mesolithic sites have also painting of social
life, sexual activity, child birth, rearing of children and burial ceremony.
environment. In the humid lands, extending from the middle Ganga valley to China and Southeast Asia, rice cultivation
and domestication of pig was accomplished probably around the same time because rice and pig existed in wild form in
this region. The cultivation of yams and taro also took place in this region. Domesticated animals proved to be useful
not only for meat but also for milk, hide, agricultural operations, and transport.
Neolithic Revolution
The human settlements in the Mesolithic era got more sedentary and this was the beginning of establishment of
villages. Man now could keep cattle, sheep and goats and protect crops from pests. In due course, as the efficiency of
agricultural production improved, some farmers were able to generate surplus food. As a consequence, a section of the
population were freed from the task of food production and their talents and energies were diverted to tasks such as
the production of pots, baskets, quarrying of stone, making of bricks, masonry and carpentry.
This was the beginning of the new occupations such as the oil presser, washerman, barber, musician, dancers etc. This
transition from hunting-gathering to food production is called the Neolithic revolution. Around 6000BC, the smelting
of metals such as Copper began which was used for raw material to be used in tool production. Later, Tin was mixed
with cooper and bronze appeared which stronger metal than both tin and copper was. Use of bronze
for tools led to the invention of wheel which revolutionized transport and pottery production.
The Neolithic period began around 10700 to 9400 BC in Tell Qaramel in Northern Syria. In South Asia
the date assigned to Neolithic period is 7000 BC and the earliest example is Mehrgarh Culture.
Mehrgarh is the oldest agricultural settlement in the Indian subcontinent.
Mehrgarh Culture
Mehrgarh is the oldest agricultural settlement in the Indian subcontinent Agriculture-based Neolithic settlements.
Despite being the agriculture settlement, it used only stone tools, so is why placed in Neolithic Era. It flourished in the
seventh millennium B.C.
Mehrgarh is located on the Bolan River, a tributary of the Indus, at the eastern edge of the Baluchistan plateau
overlooking the Indus plain. The Mehrgarh culture has been divided into 8 sub periods and following are important
features of these sub-periods:
First Period
Earliest period of Mehrgarh is characterized by polished stone tools, microliths and bone tools. In this phase
the subsistence economy consisted of a combination of hunting, stock-breeding and plant cultivation.
The domesticated animals comprise cattle, sheep, goat and water buffalo while the cultivated plants comprise
several varieties of wheat and barley.
The houses were made of mud and mud-bricks.
Multiple rooms without doors are believed to have been used for storing grain.
The dead were buried under the floors of the houses where people lived. Some of the skeletons which were buried
have been found sprinkled with red ochre.
Necklaces of microbeads of steatite along with beads of turquoise, lapis lazuli and sea shell, stone axes and
microliths have also been found in the graves.
In two cases, bodies of young goats were also found.
There was no pottery at this stage but baskets coated with bitumen were used.
Second Period
This period has left evidences of handmade, basket-impressed coarse ware. There was emergence of wheelmade
pottery painted in reddish and black color with simple straight and curved lines, rows of dots and
crisscrosses.
Sickles made of stone bladelets, set obliquely in wood handles with bitumen as the adhesive material, may have
been used for harvesting.
Metal technology started , evident from the discovery of a copper ring and a bead .
Terracotta human figurines and bangles also appear.
Third Period
Improved farming around 3000 BC is evident from a new variety of barley, viz. Hordeum sphaerococcum, which
can be grown only in irrigated fields.
The presence of cotton seeds suggests the possibility of the use of this fibre for textile manufacture.
The Vessels were now decorated with paintings of birds and animals as also with geometric designs. Oats and
another variety of wheat was added to the agriculture.
Stone bead manufacturing and copper smelting started.
Fourth Period
Emergence of polychrome pottery with a tall goblet with wide mouth and a pedestal base as a new shape.
Extensive use of timber in the construction of houses, of female terracotta figurines with pendulous breasts
and of stamped seals of terracotta and bone.
Emergence of commercial transactions.
Fifth Period
A marked decline in polychrome decoration on pottery.
Sixth Period
Dramatically increase in pottery styles and the first evidence of pottery kilns.
Pipal leaf and humped bull designs appear on pottery which anticipate Harappan motifs.
Proliferation of terracotta figurines, improved female figurines.
Seventh Period
Richness and variety of terracotta figurines very much similar to the Indus Valley Civilization.
Medial partition of the hair suggesting the popular practice among Hindu women.
Terracotta bulls with prominent humps and rams made in alabaster.
Designs of swastika, cruciforms and running animals on terracotta figurines.
Emergence of monumental architecture evident from a large brick platform.
Eighth Period
Structured graves, semi-precious stone beads and a bronze shaft-hole axe.
Cigar Snapped handmade Brick structures with fire places, stone blade industry using flint, composite stickle,
grinding stones, bone tools, Pottery etc.
In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence in
human history for the drilling of teeth in a living person was found in Mehrgarh. Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor
to the Indus Valley Civilization. “Discoveries at Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization,”
Chalcolithic Period
Chalcolithic is also known as Eneolithic period which saw the use of the metals among which the Copper was first. It is
called Chalcolithic which means use of stone and well as copper was prevalent in this period. The earliest settlements of
the Chalcolithic period range from the Gangetic basin to Chhotanagpur Plateau. The economy of this period was based
upon agriculture, stock raising, hunting and fishing. Limited number of Copper and bronze tools have also been
recovered.
The presence of painted pottery is a hall mark of the Chalcolithic period.
The burial practice was another striking feature and the dead were buried in a particular direction all over a
particular area.
The largest site of the Chalcolithic period is Diamabad situated on the left bank of the Pravara River.
The pottery ranges from Red ware , deep red ware to deep brown and black, Pictographic red and black and
polished red.
Some Chalcolithic Cultures:
Ahara Culture: The sites of Ahar Culture were Aahar (Rajasthan), balathal, Gilund etc. The distinctive feature
is black and red ware.
Kayatha Culture: Located in Chambal and its tributaries, the sturdy red slipped ware with chocolate designs is main feature
Malwa Culture: Narmada & its tributaries in Gujarat. One of the largest Chalcolithic settlements.
Svalda Culture: The well-known sites are in Dhulia district of Maharashtra.
Prabhas & Rangpur Culture: Both of them are derived from the Harappa culture. The polished red ware is the hall mark of this culture.
Kindly Note these observations:
The lower Palaeolithic sites were not found on the plains of Indus, Saraswati, Brahmaputra and Ganga because probably material in the form of stone was not available over there. As Stone was the major industry of the time. Then, in northern India , Mesolithic sites have not been recorded.
The main difference between the Lower Paleolithic and upper Paleolithic was that in Lower Paleolithic quartzite was mainly used while in upper Paleolithic crypto-crystalline silica was mainly used.
In Kashmir, the people of Neolithic settelements used to bury dogs with their masters .
Apart from the stone tools, there is one side in India which gives evidence of Bone tools in Paleolithic Era. It is Muchchatta Chintamanu Gavi. Its located in kurnool.
Cultivation of cotton was a main feature of Mehrgarh as well as Indus Valley Civilization.
The Earliest evidence of Rice cultivation has come from Belan Valley
The Middle Palaeolithic Industry based upon stone was located in southern Thar desert in Rajasthan and it was called Luni industry.
The most common animal in the cave paintings of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic era was was deer.
The people of Gilund in Rajasthan were NOT aware of bricks.
The Banana, Coconut, areca nut etc. Came from South East Asia around 2000 BC
HARAPPA-----RAVI BANK
ANCIENT PAINTINGS IN CHITTANAVASAL
kotada timba----conatins ruins of harappan city is the gujarat (dholavira)
4000 year old Harappan civilization ruined due to the climate
change: Study
As per a latest study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the 4000 year old
Harappan civilization ruined due to the climate change. The study reveals that decline in monsoon rains led to
weakened river dynamics, and played a critical role both in the development and the collapse of the Harappan culture
which was dependent on river floods to fuel their agricultural surplus. Harappan civilization was one of world’s largest
and oldest urban civilizations It was spread over an area of more than 386000 sq miles (1 million sq km) covering plains
of the Indus River from the Arabian Sea to the Ganges. It is believed that 10% of the world population lived in the
civilization.
KUSHANAS DYNASTY WAS IDENTIFIED ONLY ON THE BASIS OF DER COINS. GHANDARA SCHOOL OF ART AND MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART FLOURISHED
BHARAT WAS CALLED SARVADHAMANA IN HIS CHILDHOOD
1792------WILLIAM JONES TRANSLATED GITA GOVINDH
HARSHAVARDHAMA KNOWN AS UTTARAPATHAPATHI WAS DEFEATED ON BANKS OF NARMADA BY PULIKESI 2 AND GOT TITLE DAKSHINAPATHAPATHI
1906----ARCHEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA MADE A PERMANENT BODY
ANCIENT INDIA
RACES
NEGRITO – 1ST FORMED MAN
CAUCASOID- EUROPEAN AND INDIAN
MONGOLOID—CHINESE JAPANESE,TIBET
STONE AGE
DIVIDED INTO 3 PARTS
1.PALEO(OLD)
2.MESO(LATE )
3.NEO(NEW)
PALEOLETHIC
OR ICE AGE OR OLD STONE AGE (2,50,000- 10,000B.C)
THIS STAGE DEVELOPED IN INDIA DURING PLEISTOCENE OR ICE AGE.
IT WAS SPREAD EVERY WHERE EXCEPT ALLUVIAL PLAIN OF INDUS AND GANGA.
USED STONE TOOLS--- HARD ROCKS(QUARTZITE-MATAMORPHIC)
IT WAS SPREAD EVERY WHERE EXCEPT ALLUVIAL PLAIN OF INDUS AND GANGA.
USED STONE TOOLS--- HARD ROCKS(QUARTZITE-MATAMORPHIC)
FOOD GATHERS AND WANDERERS
FATHER OF PRE HISTORY ROBERT BRUCE FOOTE--- DISCOVERED STONE
AND HAND AXE AT PALLAVARAM
AXES AND STONES FOUND IN R. KORATALAYAR (NEAR CHENNAI) AND
IN VADA MADURAI
JAINAR--- FOUND EVEDENCES IN VELLAM AND TUTICORIN
EARLY OR LOWER PALEOLITHIC AGE
TOOLS-----HAND AXES AND CLEAVERS
SITE----SOAN AND SOHAN RIVER , BELAM VALLEY (MIRZAPUR IN UP)
MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC AGE
TOOLS---STONE TOOLS MADE OF FLAKES, SCRAPERS,BLADE
SITE----VALLEY OF SOAN, NARMADA AND TUNGABHADRA RIVERS
UPPER PALEOLITHIC AGE
TOOLS----STONE TOOL OF BLADE
SITE-----A.P, KARNATAKA, MAHARASHTRA, BHOPAL, CHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU
ADAMGARH HILL AND BAHOR (RAJASTAN) ARE FIRST EVIDENCE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
EARLY OR LOWER PALEOLITHIC AGE
TOOLS-----HAND AXES AND CLEAVERS
SITE----SOAN AND SOHAN RIVER , BELAM VALLEY (MIRZAPUR IN UP)
MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC AGE
TOOLS---STONE TOOLS MADE OF FLAKES, SCRAPERS,BLADE
SITE----VALLEY OF SOAN, NARMADA AND TUNGABHADRA RIVERS
UPPER PALEOLITHIC AGE
TOOLS----STONE TOOL OF BLADE
SITE-----A.P, KARNATAKA, MAHARASHTRA, BHOPAL, CHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU
ADAMGARH HILL AND BAHOR (RAJASTAN) ARE FIRST EVIDENCE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
SITES
M.P- ADAMGRAH (NARMADA), BIMBETKA,SOAN VALLEY
PAKISTAN—SOHAN VALLEY AND POTWAR PLATEAU
NORTH----BELAN (U.P), SARAI NAHAR RAI (U.P), SIWALIK
T.N --- ADIRAMPAKKAM KANCHI, VELLORE,PALLAVARAM,THIRUVALLUR
A.P----KURNOOL
W.B----BIRBHANPUR
GUJARAT----LANGHNEIGUNJ
W.B----BIRBHANPUR
GUJARAT----LANGHNEIGUNJ
MIDDLE
STONE AGE OR MESOLITHIC AGE(10,000 B.C- 6,000 B.C)
LIVED IN CAVES
USED BOW AND ARROW…..
SMALL STONES( MICROLITHIC)
USED SILICATE AND CHALECLONY ---EG.JASPER,CHART,BLOOD STONE.
USE OF FIRE PREHISTORIC ART----- 500
PAINTINGS IN ADAMGARH AND BHIMBETKA CAVES
LAST STAGE OF THIS PHASE BEGINNING OF PLANT CULTIVATION
LAST STAGE OF THIS PHASE BEGINNING OF PLANT CULTIVATION
NEOLITHIC
AGE OR NEW STONE AGE-----(6,000-4,500 B.C)
NEOLITHIC NAME GIVEN BY SIR JOHN LUBBACK
MADE HOUSES,DOMESTICATED ANIMALS,CULTIVATED
LANDS,POTTERY,ART OF PAINTING,LIVED IN GROUPS
FIRE
FIRE
USED AXE, HAMMERS, WHEEL WAS INVENTED.
TAMMED GOATS,COW… USED DOG FOR HELP IN HUNTING
FAMILIAR WITH ONLY ONE METAL IS GOLD
SPIN COTTON AND WEAVE WOOL
DOLMENS OR MEGALITHIC TOMBS ARE FEATURE OF NEOLITHIC
KOLDIHWA REVEALS 3 FOLD CULTURED SEQUENCE OF NEO,CHALCO AND IRON.
CHOPANI MANDO PROVIDES EARLY EVIDENCE OF USE OF POTTERY IN WORLD
SPIN COTTON AND WEAVE WOOL
DOLMENS OR MEGALITHIC TOMBS ARE FEATURE OF NEOLITHIC
KOLDIHWA REVEALS 3 FOLD CULTURED SEQUENCE OF NEO,CHALCO AND IRON.
CHOPANI MANDO PROVIDES EARLY EVIDENCE OF USE OF POTTERY IN WORLD
SITES
J&K--- BURZAHON (DOG BURIED WITH HUMAN) AND GULKRAAL
A.P---VEERAPURAM, PEKLIHAL, UNTER
MEGHALAYA--- GARO HILLS
BIHAR--- CHIRAND
KARNATAKA—MASKI, TOKKALAKOTA AND BRAHMAGIRI
BIHAR--- CHIRAND
KARNATAKA—MASKI, TOKKALAKOTA AND BRAHMAGIRI
T.N---PAIYAMPALLI IN DHARMAPURI
POTTERY--- FOUND AT THIRUNELVELI,SALEM,PUDUKOTAI,TRICHY
MEHGARH IN BALUCHISTAN FIRST SITE
FOR COTTON CULTIVATION
METAL AGE
IN NORTH
COPPER AGE(3,000 -1,500 B.C) OR CHALCOLITHIC AGE
COPPER 1ST KNOWN METAL FOR MAN
USED AXES,SWORDS,HARPOONS MADE OF COPPER AND BRONZE
POTTERY IN BLACK AND RED MOST POPULAR
MAHARASTRA DEAD BURIED IN NORTH SOUTH POSITION BUT IN SOUTH BURIED IN EAST WEST POSITION
SITES ------------DOMESTICATED ANIMAL AND PRODUCED WHEAT, RICE,LENTIL, BLACK GRAM, GREEN GRAM, BAJRA AND GRASS PEA.
SOUTH EAST---RAJASTHAN (GELUND)
WEST----M.P (KAYATHA, ERAN)
WESTERN----MAHARASTRA (DAIMABAD, NEVAS, JORWE, INAMGAON, NAVDATOLI, NASIK, SONGAON)
W.B---PANDU RAJAR DIBBI
MAHARASTRA DEAD BURIED IN NORTH SOUTH POSITION BUT IN SOUTH BURIED IN EAST WEST POSITION
SITES ------------DOMESTICATED ANIMAL AND PRODUCED WHEAT, RICE,LENTIL, BLACK GRAM, GREEN GRAM, BAJRA AND GRASS PEA.
SOUTH EAST---RAJASTHAN (GELUND)
WEST----M.P (KAYATHA, ERAN)
WESTERN----MAHARASTRA (DAIMABAD, NEVAS, JORWE, INAMGAON, NAVDATOLI, NASIK, SONGAON)
W.B---PANDU RAJAR DIBBI
IN SOUTH
IRON AGE(1,500-600B.C)
OR AMENDAS
PADDY CULTIVATION,IRRIGATION
PPL CALLED AS DRAVIDAR IN S.INDIA
SITE
PERUMBHUDUR NEAR CHENNAI IRON
WEAPONS FOUND
MEGALITHIC AGE LAST STAGE OF NEW STONE AGE
MEGALITH---BURIAL MONUMENT
SITES----ADICHANALLUR(TIRUNELVLI----- URN BURIAL, BRONZE
UTENSIL SEEN),TRICHY CIRCULAR STONE,PUDUKOTTAI,CUDDALORE,VELLORE,KANCHI
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION--- (3,250-2,750 B.C OR
2,500-1,750 B.C) OR URBAN CIVILIZATION
OTHER CIVILISATIONS—SUMARIAN—NILE.R, MESOPOTOMIAN---TIGRIS
AND PUTALS.R(BOTH DRAINAGE NOT SEEN)
ALSO CALLED AS HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION COS HARAPPA WAS THE 1ST
EXCAVATED SITE OR SARASWATHI CIVILIZATION COS DER WAS A RIVER NAMED SARASWATHI
OR MOTHER BASED SOCIETY.
BEFORE IRON AGE AND IN NORTH INDIA SO IRON NOT KNOWN, SO
REPRESENTS BRONZE OR COPPER AGE
CAME TO LIGHT IN 1921 BY EXCAVATION OF HARAPPA BY
R.B.DAYARAM SAHNI, 1922 mohenjadaro BY R.D.BANERJEE , SIR JOHN MARSHALL HELPED
IN BOTH.
EXTENSION
NORTH—MANDA(J”&K)
SOUTH—DAINABAD(MAHARASTRA)
EAST—ALAMGIPUR(NEAR DELHI)
WEST—SUJKAJANDAN(IRAN) OR BALUCHISTAN(PAK)
FOOD WHEAT AND BARLEY
WORSHIPED PASUPATHI AND MOTHER GODDESS
HARAPPA EARLIEST EVIDENCE OF SILVER IN INDIA
DONT KNOW IRON AND HORSE
DONT KNOW IRON AND HORSE
EROS FATHER CALLED THE SCRIPTS OF INDUS VALLEY AS PROTO DRAVIDIAN SCRIPT
S.NO
|
SITES
|
FOUNDER
|
YEAR
|
THINGS
|
RIVER AND PLACE
|
PRESENT POSITION
|
1.
|
HARAPPA (OR)
BURIED CITY
(now in pak Montgomery district of the Punjab) |
R.B.DAYARAM SAHNI
|
1921
|
TWO ROWS OF 6 GRANARIES, WEAPONS
MADE OF BRONZE(Cu+Sn)
|
RAVI.R
|
MONTGOMERY
W.PUNJAB(PAK)
|
2
|
MOHENJADARO
(OR) MOUND OF DEAD
|
RAKHAL DAS BANERJEE
|
1922
|
GREAT BATH, BRASS DANCING GIRL,GREAT GRANARY
|
INDUS
|
SINDH(PAK)
|
3.
|
CHANHUDARO
|
N.G.MAJUMDAR
|
1931
|
LIPSTICK
|
INDUS
|
SINDH (PAK)
(DRAINAGE)
|
4.
|
KALIBANGAN
|
AMLANANDA
GHOSH,B.B.LAL
|
SKULL HOLE,BLACK BANGLES,PRACTICE OF FIRE CULT,PLOUGHED
FIELD
|
GHAGHAR
|
HANUMANGARH
(RAJASTHAN)
|
|
5.
|
RANGPUR
|
M.S.VATSA
|
1931
|
MADAR.R
|
GUJARAT
|
|
6.
|
KOT DIJI
|
GHUREY
|
1935
|
INDUS
|
SINDH(PAK)
|
|
7.
|
DABARKOT
|
MACAY
|
1935
|
BALUCHISTAN
|
||
8.
|
ROPAR(1ST SITE AFTER INDEPENDENCE)
|
Y.D.SHARMA
|
1955
|
DOG BURIAL
|
SUTLEJ.BANK
|
PUNJAB
|
9.
|
LOTHAL
|
S.R.RAO
|
1957
|
DOUBLE BURIAL,RICE CULTIVATION, PORT,PIPALTREE PAINTED JAR, HORSE
REMAIN
|
BHOGAVA
|
AHEMADABAD
|
10.
|
SURKOTADA
|
J.P.JOSHI
|
1964
|
TRACES OF HORSE,LOWER TOWN FORTIFIED
|
SHADI KAUR
|
GUJARAT
|
11.
|
BANWALI
|
R.S.BIST
|
1973
|
AN INSCRIPTION COMPRISING OF TEN LARGE SIZED SIGNS OF
HARAPPAN SCRIPTS
|
GHAGGHAR
|
HISSAR(HARYANA)
(NO DRAINAGE)
|
12.
|
SUTKAGENDOR
|
A.STEING, GEORGE DALES
|
DASHAK.R
|
BALUCHISTAN
|
||
13.
|
ALAMGIRPUR
|
Y.D.SHARMA
|
HINDON.R
|
MEERUT
|
||
14.
|
BHAGTRAV
|
KIMSAGAR
|
||||
15.
|
MALAVAN
|
TAPTI
|
||||
16.
|
ROJDI
|
BHADAR
|
||||
17.
|
DHOLAVIRA
|
TERRACOTA REPLICA OF PLOUGH
|
TRADERS WERE THE RULERS--- EGYPT,SUMARIAN,MESOPOTOMIA
IMPORTS
S.NO
|
METALS
|
SOURCES
|
1.
|
GOLD
|
AFGHAN,IRAN
|
2.
|
COPPER
|
KHETRI(RAJAS),BALUCHISTAN
|
TIN
|
AFGHAN,IRAN
|
|
LAPIS LAZULI
|
BADAKSHAN
|
|
JADE
|
PAMIR
|
|
TURQUIOSE
|
KHORASAN
|
|
STEATITE(SEAL MADE OF THIS STONE FOUND)
|
TAPI CHAHYA(IRAN)
|
|
BITUMIN
|
BALUCHISTAN,MESOPOTAMIA
|
|
LINGA WORSHIP SEEN---MARTIME WHEELER OF GERMANY “SAYS THAT
THEY R SEX ORGANS”
PICTOGRAPHIC SCRIPTS—
AIRAVADAN MAHADEVAN(FORMER IAS OFFICER NOW EDITOR OF
THINAMANI) READ 400 SCRIPTS
ASHOKA PARPOLA(FINLAND)---- WORLD TAMIL CLASSICAL AWARD IN
2010 FOR READING THESE SCRIPTS
RASU FATHER COMPARED THESE SCRIPTS WITH TAMIL
BRAHMI NOW USED IN BALUCHISTAN(PAK)—MORE RELATED TO
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE
DECLINE—AFTER 1,800 B.C NO EVIDENCES SEEN
REASONS
S.NO
|
CAUSE
|
HISTORIAN
|
|
ARYAN INVASION
|
WHEELER,GORDON,CHILDE
|
||
ECOLOGICAL DISTURBANCE
|
FAIRSERVICE
|
||
CHANGE IN RIVER COURSE
|
DALES, M.S.VATSA
|
||
LOW RAIN FALL
|
STEIN
|
||
FLOOD
|
MACAY,S.R.RAO
|
||
DRYING OF GHAGHAR RIVER
|
D.P.AGARWAL AND SOOD
|
||
EARTHQUAKE(HAKKRA &GHAGHAR (RAS) WENT INSIDE)
|
RAIKES AND DALES
|
ARYANS CAME FROM---
CENTRAL ASIA---(ASIA MINOR) SYRIA,JORDON--- TOLD BY MAX
MULLER
ARTIC REGION----(N.RUSSIA)---- TILAK
TIBET---- DAYANAND SARAWATHI
EUROPE---WILLIAM JONES
SKELETON FOUND INSIDE HOUSE IN MOHENJADARO
VEDIC AGE
EARLY VEDIC(RURAL CIVILIZATION (1600--1000B.C)
ARYAN DERIVED FROM TERM ARYA MEANING MEN OF GOOD FAMILY, THOSE WHO SPOKE VEDIC SANSKRIT.
VEDA (TO KNOW)
ARYAN DERIVED FROM TERM ARYA MEANING MEN OF GOOD FAMILY, THOSE WHO SPOKE VEDIC SANSKRIT.
VEDA (TO KNOW)
BOGAZKHAI INSCRIPTION- 1,400 B.C IN ASIA MINOR, SAYS ABOUT
TREATY SIGNED BETWN HITTAFI AND MITTAMI KINGS IN THE PRESENCE OF
INDRA,MITRA,VARUNA,NASATYA’S(HINDU GODS).SO ARYANS HINDUS CAME FROM ASIA MINOR
COS DER WAS NO HINDUISM IN INDIA TILL THAT.
HARIPPIA(HARAPPA) BATTLE OF TEN KINGS AT RABI.R WON BY
SUDRA’A, IS AN EVIDENCE ABT THE ATTACK
ON HARAPPA.
ARYANS SETTLED IN SAPTA SINDHU---- LAND OF 7
RIVERS---JHELUM, CHENAB, RABI, BEAS, SUTLEJ, INDUS AND SARASWATHI.
SETTLEMENT OF ARYANS---EAST AFGHAN,PUNJAB,WEST
U.P,SIND,BALUCHISTAN.
HEAD IS CALLED RAJA. ADVICE TO RAJA GIVEN BY SABHA (ELDERS ORGANISATION) AND SAMITI (PUBLIC )
NO VARNA SYSTEM
WOMEN RESPECTED
RIG VEDA
NO VARNA SYSTEM
WOMEN RESPECTED
RIG VEDA
1028 SONGS RECITED BY PRIEST STYLED HOTRI. DIVIDED INTO 10 MANDALAS(BOOKS IN THAT 2 TO 7 OLDEST PORTION. AITRAYA AND KAUSHATAKI ARE BRAHMANS ATTACHED TO IT
SCHOLARS FIND SIMILARITIES IN LANGUAGE USED IN RIG VEDA AND AVESTA OLDEST IRANIAN TEXT
GEOGRAPHY
KNEW HIMALAYAS COS PEAK MUNJAVANT IS SOURCE OF SOMA
VINDHYAS AND SEA NOT FAMILIAR
ECONOMY
RAJA OR GOPATI (PROTECTOR OF COWS)
GAVYUTHI USED FOR MEASURING DISTANCE AND GODHULI---MEASURING TIME
SCHOLARS FIND SIMILARITIES IN LANGUAGE USED IN RIG VEDA AND AVESTA OLDEST IRANIAN TEXT
GEOGRAPHY
KNEW HIMALAYAS COS PEAK MUNJAVANT IS SOURCE OF SOMA
VINDHYAS AND SEA NOT FAMILIAR
ECONOMY
RAJA OR GOPATI (PROTECTOR OF COWS)
GAVYUTHI USED FOR MEASURING DISTANCE AND GODHULI---MEASURING TIME
DAUGHTER CALLED AS DUHITRI(ONE WHO MILKS COW)
MAN WHO OWNED MANY COWS---GOMAT
CONFLICTS,BATTLES----GAVISTHI,GAVYAT(SEARCHING COWS)
SOCIETY
TRIBE CALLED AS JANA..GODHANA---GUEST
MANY CLANS TOGETHER FORMED TRIBE
FAMILY----KULA, HEAD ----KULAPA
POLITY
SENANI(LEADER OF ARMY), GRAMINI(HEAD OF VILLAGE)
SABHA( COUNCIL OF SELECT MEMBERS, SAMITI( COUNCIL OF WHOLE CLAN) VIDHATA( PARENT FOLK ASSEMBLY AND GANA
18 PURANAS----KARUDA, ETC
RIVERS
ANCIENT NAMES-------------NEW NAME
KUBHA---------------KABUL
SUVASTU-------------SWAT
KRUMU-----------KURRAM
GOMATI----------GOMAL
SINDHU---------INDUS
SUSHOMA-------SOHAN
VATISTA-------JHELUM
SADANIRA--------GANDAK
SARASWATHI-----GHAGHAR
SHATUDRI-------SUTLEJ
MARUDVIRDHA----MARUVARDAN
VIPASA-------BEAS
PURUSHNI-----RAVI
ASKINI------CHENAB
CONFLICTS,BATTLES----GAVISTHI,GAVYAT(SEARCHING COWS)
SOCIETY
TRIBE CALLED AS JANA..GODHANA---GUEST
MANY CLANS TOGETHER FORMED TRIBE
FAMILY----KULA, HEAD ----KULAPA
POLITY
SENANI(LEADER OF ARMY), GRAMINI(HEAD OF VILLAGE)
SABHA( COUNCIL OF SELECT MEMBERS, SAMITI( COUNCIL OF WHOLE CLAN) VIDHATA( PARENT FOLK ASSEMBLY AND GANA
18 PURANAS----KARUDA, ETC
RIVERS
ANCIENT NAMES-------------NEW NAME
KUBHA---------------KABUL
SUVASTU-------------SWAT
KRUMU-----------KURRAM
GOMATI----------GOMAL
SINDHU---------INDUS
SUSHOMA-------SOHAN
VATISTA-------JHELUM
SADANIRA--------GANDAK
SARASWATHI-----GHAGHAR
SHATUDRI-------SUTLEJ
MARUDVIRDHA----MARUVARDAN
VIPASA-------BEAS
PURUSHNI-----RAVI
ASKINI------CHENAB
LATER VEDIC AGE(2ND URBANISATION) (1000---600 B.C)
PAINTED GREY WARE POTTERY
PHASES BASED ON POTTERY
OCHRE COLOURED POTTERY---2000-1800 B.C CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD
BLACK AND RED WARE---POST HARAPPA
PAINTED GREY WARE----LATER VEDIC PERIOD
NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED WARE----PRE MAURYAN
RED SLIPPED WARE----POST MAURYAN
YAJUR----
SAMA--MUSIC
ATHARVA--BLACK MAGI
SAMA--MUSIC
ATHARVA--BLACK MAGI
WOMEN SUPPRESSED
VARNA SYSTEM
GEOGRAPHY
KNEW 2 SEAS AND RIVER SARASWATHI AND RIVER SEDANIRA( GANDAK)
ECONOMY
TAX DEPOSITED TO OFFICER CALLED SANGRIHITRI, BHAGADUGHA
RICE OR VRIHI FOOD
NISHKA, SATMANA UNITS USED NOT COINS
POLITY
SABHA SAMITI EXISTED VIDHATA DISAPPEARED
RASHTRA FIRST APPEARED SO TERRITORIAL EXPANSION STARTED
NEW OFFICERS LIKE RATUINS SEEN ALONG WITH PUROHITS,SENANI,GRAMININ
SUTA---CHARIOTEER, KSATLER---CHAMBERLAIN, AKSAVAPA---GAME COMPANION OF KING
SOCIETY
DIVIDED ON 4 VARNA SYSTEM----BRAHMIN,KSHATRIYA,VAISHYA, SUDRA
UPPER 3 CLASSES ARE CALLED AS DVIJ OR TWICE BORN
GOTRA FIRST APPEARED IN ATHARVA VEDA MEANING CLAN
VRATYAS WERE ARYANS OUTSIDE THE PALE OF BRAHMANISM WHO SPOKE PRAKRIT LANGUAGE
TYPES OF MARRIAGE IN LVP
BRAHMIN----ARRANGED MARRIAGE W/O DOWRY
DAIVA---DAUGHTER GIVEN TO PREIST AS PART OF HIS FEES
ARSA----TOKEN BRIDE PRICE OF COW AND BULL PAID TO THE DAUGHTER'S FATHER
PRAJAPATYA----FATHER GAVE GIRL W/O DOWRY AND W/O DEMANDING BRIDE PRICE FROM GUY
GANDHARA---CONSENT OF 2 PARTIES
ASURA---BY PURCHASE
RAKSHASA----BY CAPTURE
PAISHACH----SEDUCTION OF GIRL WHILE SHE S ASLEEP OR DRUNK
RELIGION
33 DEITIES----PRITHVI, RUDRA,ADITI,ETC
RELIGIOUS SACRIFICES WHERE IN THE FORM OF YAJNAS LIKE ASHVAMEDA,
PERFORMED BY GROUP OF PREIST HEAD BY4 --- HOTRI (INVOKER), UDGATRE(CHANTER), ADHVARYU(PERFORMER) AND BRAHMANA (HIGH PREIST)
TYPES OF YAGYA
ASHVAMEDHA---HORSE SACRIFICE TO ESTAB KING'S SUPREMACY OVER OTHERS
RAJASUYA----CONSECRATION CEREMONY
RATNAHAVIMSI----DIFFERENT ROYAL OFFICIALS OR RATNINS(ROYAL OFFICIALS) INVOKED DIFFERENT GODS
VAJAPEYA----CHARIOT RACE
SAMA VEDA
ALL ITS VERSUS TAKEN FROM RIG VEDA EXCEPT 75, THE SONGS ARE MEANT TO BE SUNG AT SOMA SACRIFICES BY PRIEST UDGATRI. TANDYAMAHA AND JAIMINIYA BRAHMAN ARE ATTCHED TO IT.
YAJUR VEDA (PROCEDURE FOR PERFORMANCE OF SACRIFICE)
IT HAS RITUALS AND HYMNS RECITED BY ADHARVAYU. YAJUR VEDA IS IN PROSE AND RIG VEDA IS IN VERSE. SATAPATHA AND TAITTIRIYA BRAHMAN ARE ATTACHED TO IT.
ATHARVA VEDA (BRAHMADEVA)
BLACK MAGIC--CHARMS AND SPELLS TO WARD OF DISEASES AND EVIL. NON ARYAN WORK EXCLUDED FROM TRAYI. CONTAINS GOPATHA BRAHMANA.
BRAHMANAS
DEALS WITH SCIENCE OF SACRIFICE. RULE TO PERFORM SACRIFICIAL CEREMONIES. EACH BRAHMANA IS CONNECTED WITH ONE VEDA
ARANYAKA
DEALS ABT FOREST.
UPANISHADS MEANS TO SIT NEAR SOMEONE. IT WAS THE FIRST REACTION OF BRAHMANICAL DOMINANCE
108 IN NO. DWELLS ON ATMAN AND BRAHMA AND SCRIFICE(YAJNA)
VEDANGAS ARE NOT CALLED SRUTI BECOS THEY ARE OF HUMAN ORIGIN AND WRITTEN IN THE FORM OF SUTRAS. THEY ARE FIXED IN NUMBER AND INCLUDE SHIKSHA(PHONETICS), KALPA (RITUALISTIC SCIENCE), JYOTISHA(ASTRONOMY), VYAKARAN(GRAMMER), NIRUKTA(ETYMOLOGY) AND CHANDA(METRIES)
YASK'S NIRUKTA IS THE OLDEST INDIAN LINGUISTIC TEXT. PANINI'S ' ASTADHYAYI ' IS THE OLDEST INDIAN GRAMMAR.
SUTRAS
KALPA SUTRA HAS 3 DIVISIONS
1) SRAUTA SUTRA DEALS WITH LARGE PUBLIC SACRIFICE
2) GRIHA SUTRA DEALS WITH DOMESTRIC SACRIFICE LIKE BIRTH,NAMING ETC
3) SULVA SUTRA PRESCRIBES VARIOUS KINDS OF MEASUREMENT FOR CONSTRUCTION OF SACRIFICIAL ALTARS. IT MARKS THE BEGINING OF GEOMETRY AND MATHEMATICS
DRAMA SUTRA
IMPORTANT UPAVEDAS ARE AYURVEDA, DHANURVEDA, GANDHARVEDA AND SHILPAVEDA
PURANAS ARE 18 IN NUMBER AND INCLUDE LIST OF ODD DYNASTIES.
PURANAS ARE SAME AS ITIHASIS
DHARMA SHASTRAS ARE BOOK ON LAW AND JUDICIAL PROCEDURES. IMPORTANT DHARMA SHASTRAS ARE MANU SMIRTI, VISHNU SMRITI, YAGNAVALKYA SMRITI AND NARADA SMRITI
BOOKS
ATHARVA VEDA---FIRST MENTION OF MAGADHA, KING PARIKSHIT , MEANS OF IRRIGATION, GOTRA
RIG VEDA-----BELIEF IN VISHNU,
10 MANDAL---ORIGI OF UNIVERSE, CHATURVARNA
9 MANDAL---SOMA DRINK
GAYATHRI MANTRA
YAJUR VEDA------- VIDEH RAJA
UPA VEDA RELATED IS CALLED SILPA UPA VEDA
BHAGAVAD GITA IT IS IN SMRITHI TEXT, IT IS INFERIOR TO SHRUTHI----AVTARVAD
SMRITHI STANDS NEXT TO SRUTHI IN AUTHOURS
SMIRTHI EXPLAINS AND DEVELOPS DHARMA AND LAYS DOWN LAWS WHICH REGULATE HINDU NATIONAL,SOCIAL,FAMILY.
IT EXPLAINS RITUALISTIC FUNCTIONS CALLED VIDHIS IN VEDAS.
UPANISHAD
PRASNA UPANISHAD----BIRTH OF UNIVERSE BY PRAJAPATI
CHANDOGYA UPANISHAD----FIRST 3 ASHRAMS OF LIFE, LORD KRISHNA, DIALOGUE BETWEEN YAM AND NACHIKETA, TATVAM ASI
JABALA UPANISHAD-----FOUR ASHRAM OF LIFE
MUNDAKA UPANISHAD----SATHYAMEV JAYATHE
BRIHADARANYAKA UPANISHAD-----DIALOGUE OF GARGI AND MAITREYI, TRANS MIGRATION, TAMASO MA JOTHIRGAMAYA, THEORY OF KARMA
MAITRAYANA UPANISHAD----TRIMURTHI
TAITTRIYA UPANISHAD---MENTION OF NAGAR FOR FIRST TIME
BRAHAMAN
SATAPATHA BRAHAMAN----WEARING OF SACRED THREAD, KSHATRIYA SUPERIOR TO BRAHMAN, SHUDRA CAN TAKE PART IN SOME YAJNA, STORY OF PUNARVA AND URVASHI, AGRICULTURAL PROCESS, ARYANISATION OF EASTERN INDIA, COSMIC OCEAN, DEATH APPEARS FIRST, MENTION OF SEAS FOR THE FIRST TIME
AITREYA BRAHMAN---THEORY OF ORIGIN OF STATE, RAJA AS VISHMATTA, FIRST MENTION OF ASHRAMA SYSTEM, CLASSIFICATION OF GOVT, ORIGIN OF KINGSHIP
SUTRA
BHAGWATI SUTRA----16 MAHAJANAPADA
ACHRANGA SUTRA------REPUBLIC
RAHULOVADA SUTRA-----DEFINITION OF DHAMMA
PURANA
MATSYA PURANA----10 AVATAR
JATAKA
BAWARU JATAKA------PEACOCK EXPORTED TO WEST ASIA
SIX SCHOOLS INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
KAPIL----SANKHYA SHASTRA MEANS ENUMERATIONS (OLDEST PHILOSOPHY)
PATANJALI---YOGA SHASTRA MEANS APPLICATION
GAUTAM----NYAYA SHASTRA MEANS ANALYSIS
KANAD----VAISHESHIKHA SHASTRA MMEANS SCHOOL OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
JAMINYE----PURVA MIMANSA MEANS ENQUIRY
BADRAYANA----UTTAR MIMANSA OR VEDANTA MEANS END OF THE VEDAS
VARNA SYSTEM
GEOGRAPHY
KNEW 2 SEAS AND RIVER SARASWATHI AND RIVER SEDANIRA( GANDAK)
ECONOMY
TAX DEPOSITED TO OFFICER CALLED SANGRIHITRI, BHAGADUGHA
RICE OR VRIHI FOOD
NISHKA, SATMANA UNITS USED NOT COINS
POLITY
SABHA SAMITI EXISTED VIDHATA DISAPPEARED
RASHTRA FIRST APPEARED SO TERRITORIAL EXPANSION STARTED
NEW OFFICERS LIKE RATUINS SEEN ALONG WITH PUROHITS,SENANI,GRAMININ
SUTA---CHARIOTEER, KSATLER---CHAMBERLAIN, AKSAVAPA---GAME COMPANION OF KING
SOCIETY
DIVIDED ON 4 VARNA SYSTEM----BRAHMIN,KSHATRIYA,VAISHYA, SUDRA
UPPER 3 CLASSES ARE CALLED AS DVIJ OR TWICE BORN
GOTRA FIRST APPEARED IN ATHARVA VEDA MEANING CLAN
VRATYAS WERE ARYANS OUTSIDE THE PALE OF BRAHMANISM WHO SPOKE PRAKRIT LANGUAGE
TYPES OF MARRIAGE IN LVP
BRAHMIN----ARRANGED MARRIAGE W/O DOWRY
DAIVA---DAUGHTER GIVEN TO PREIST AS PART OF HIS FEES
ARSA----TOKEN BRIDE PRICE OF COW AND BULL PAID TO THE DAUGHTER'S FATHER
PRAJAPATYA----FATHER GAVE GIRL W/O DOWRY AND W/O DEMANDING BRIDE PRICE FROM GUY
GANDHARA---CONSENT OF 2 PARTIES
ASURA---BY PURCHASE
RAKSHASA----BY CAPTURE
PAISHACH----SEDUCTION OF GIRL WHILE SHE S ASLEEP OR DRUNK
RELIGION
33 DEITIES----PRITHVI, RUDRA,ADITI,ETC
RELIGIOUS SACRIFICES WHERE IN THE FORM OF YAJNAS LIKE ASHVAMEDA,
PERFORMED BY GROUP OF PREIST HEAD BY4 --- HOTRI (INVOKER), UDGATRE(CHANTER), ADHVARYU(PERFORMER) AND BRAHMANA (HIGH PREIST)
TYPES OF YAGYA
ASHVAMEDHA---HORSE SACRIFICE TO ESTAB KING'S SUPREMACY OVER OTHERS
RAJASUYA----CONSECRATION CEREMONY
RATNAHAVIMSI----DIFFERENT ROYAL OFFICIALS OR RATNINS(ROYAL OFFICIALS) INVOKED DIFFERENT GODS
VAJAPEYA----CHARIOT RACE
SAMA VEDA
ALL ITS VERSUS TAKEN FROM RIG VEDA EXCEPT 75, THE SONGS ARE MEANT TO BE SUNG AT SOMA SACRIFICES BY PRIEST UDGATRI. TANDYAMAHA AND JAIMINIYA BRAHMAN ARE ATTCHED TO IT.
YAJUR VEDA (PROCEDURE FOR PERFORMANCE OF SACRIFICE)
IT HAS RITUALS AND HYMNS RECITED BY ADHARVAYU. YAJUR VEDA IS IN PROSE AND RIG VEDA IS IN VERSE. SATAPATHA AND TAITTIRIYA BRAHMAN ARE ATTACHED TO IT.
ATHARVA VEDA (BRAHMADEVA)
BLACK MAGIC--CHARMS AND SPELLS TO WARD OF DISEASES AND EVIL. NON ARYAN WORK EXCLUDED FROM TRAYI. CONTAINS GOPATHA BRAHMANA.
BRAHMANAS
DEALS WITH SCIENCE OF SACRIFICE. RULE TO PERFORM SACRIFICIAL CEREMONIES. EACH BRAHMANA IS CONNECTED WITH ONE VEDA
ARANYAKA
DEALS ABT FOREST.
UPANISHADS MEANS TO SIT NEAR SOMEONE. IT WAS THE FIRST REACTION OF BRAHMANICAL DOMINANCE
108 IN NO. DWELLS ON ATMAN AND BRAHMA AND SCRIFICE(YAJNA)
VEDANGAS ARE NOT CALLED SRUTI BECOS THEY ARE OF HUMAN ORIGIN AND WRITTEN IN THE FORM OF SUTRAS. THEY ARE FIXED IN NUMBER AND INCLUDE SHIKSHA(PHONETICS), KALPA (RITUALISTIC SCIENCE), JYOTISHA(ASTRONOMY), VYAKARAN(GRAMMER), NIRUKTA(ETYMOLOGY) AND CHANDA(METRIES)
YASK'S NIRUKTA IS THE OLDEST INDIAN LINGUISTIC TEXT. PANINI'S ' ASTADHYAYI ' IS THE OLDEST INDIAN GRAMMAR.
SUTRAS
KALPA SUTRA HAS 3 DIVISIONS
1) SRAUTA SUTRA DEALS WITH LARGE PUBLIC SACRIFICE
2) GRIHA SUTRA DEALS WITH DOMESTRIC SACRIFICE LIKE BIRTH,NAMING ETC
3) SULVA SUTRA PRESCRIBES VARIOUS KINDS OF MEASUREMENT FOR CONSTRUCTION OF SACRIFICIAL ALTARS. IT MARKS THE BEGINING OF GEOMETRY AND MATHEMATICS
DRAMA SUTRA
IMPORTANT UPAVEDAS ARE AYURVEDA, DHANURVEDA, GANDHARVEDA AND SHILPAVEDA
PURANAS ARE 18 IN NUMBER AND INCLUDE LIST OF ODD DYNASTIES.
PURANAS ARE SAME AS ITIHASIS
DHARMA SHASTRAS ARE BOOK ON LAW AND JUDICIAL PROCEDURES. IMPORTANT DHARMA SHASTRAS ARE MANU SMIRTI, VISHNU SMRITI, YAGNAVALKYA SMRITI AND NARADA SMRITI
BOOKS
ATHARVA VEDA---FIRST MENTION OF MAGADHA, KING PARIKSHIT , MEANS OF IRRIGATION, GOTRA
RIG VEDA-----BELIEF IN VISHNU,
10 MANDAL---ORIGI OF UNIVERSE, CHATURVARNA
9 MANDAL---SOMA DRINK
GAYATHRI MANTRA
YAJUR VEDA------- VIDEH RAJA
UPA VEDA RELATED IS CALLED SILPA UPA VEDA
BHAGAVAD GITA IT IS IN SMRITHI TEXT, IT IS INFERIOR TO SHRUTHI----AVTARVAD
SMRITHI STANDS NEXT TO SRUTHI IN AUTHOURS
SMIRTHI EXPLAINS AND DEVELOPS DHARMA AND LAYS DOWN LAWS WHICH REGULATE HINDU NATIONAL,SOCIAL,FAMILY.
IT EXPLAINS RITUALISTIC FUNCTIONS CALLED VIDHIS IN VEDAS.
UPANISHAD
PRASNA UPANISHAD----BIRTH OF UNIVERSE BY PRAJAPATI
CHANDOGYA UPANISHAD----FIRST 3 ASHRAMS OF LIFE, LORD KRISHNA, DIALOGUE BETWEEN YAM AND NACHIKETA, TATVAM ASI
JABALA UPANISHAD-----FOUR ASHRAM OF LIFE
MUNDAKA UPANISHAD----SATHYAMEV JAYATHE
BRIHADARANYAKA UPANISHAD-----DIALOGUE OF GARGI AND MAITREYI, TRANS MIGRATION, TAMASO MA JOTHIRGAMAYA, THEORY OF KARMA
MAITRAYANA UPANISHAD----TRIMURTHI
TAITTRIYA UPANISHAD---MENTION OF NAGAR FOR FIRST TIME
BRAHAMAN
SATAPATHA BRAHAMAN----WEARING OF SACRED THREAD, KSHATRIYA SUPERIOR TO BRAHMAN, SHUDRA CAN TAKE PART IN SOME YAJNA, STORY OF PUNARVA AND URVASHI, AGRICULTURAL PROCESS, ARYANISATION OF EASTERN INDIA, COSMIC OCEAN, DEATH APPEARS FIRST, MENTION OF SEAS FOR THE FIRST TIME
AITREYA BRAHMAN---THEORY OF ORIGIN OF STATE, RAJA AS VISHMATTA, FIRST MENTION OF ASHRAMA SYSTEM, CLASSIFICATION OF GOVT, ORIGIN OF KINGSHIP
SUTRA
BHAGWATI SUTRA----16 MAHAJANAPADA
ACHRANGA SUTRA------REPUBLIC
RAHULOVADA SUTRA-----DEFINITION OF DHAMMA
PURANA
MATSYA PURANA----10 AVATAR
JATAKA
BAWARU JATAKA------PEACOCK EXPORTED TO WEST ASIA
SIX SCHOOLS INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
KAPIL----SANKHYA SHASTRA MEANS ENUMERATIONS (OLDEST PHILOSOPHY)
PATANJALI---YOGA SHASTRA MEANS APPLICATION
GAUTAM----NYAYA SHASTRA MEANS ANALYSIS
KANAD----VAISHESHIKHA SHASTRA MMEANS SCHOOL OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
JAMINYE----PURVA MIMANSA MEANS ENQUIRY
BADRAYANA----UTTAR MIMANSA OR VEDANTA MEANS END OF THE VEDAS
BUDDHISM
ALEXANDER INVASION (326 B.C)
WHEN MAGADHA WAS RULED BY NANDAS.
FIRST EUROPEAN TO INVADE INDIA
PORUS PURUSHOTAMAN FOUGHT AGAINST ALEXANDER
MAURYAN
FIRST---CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
HIS GURU IS CHANAKYA----WROTE ARTHASHASTRA
CHANDRAGUPTA DEFEATED ALEXANDER COURT LEADER SELUCUS NIKETAR
SO GREEK PHILOSOPHER MEGASTHANES WAS SENT TO HIS COURT
MEGAS WROTE INDICA
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA SON IS BINDUSARA
BINDUSARA SON IS ASHOKA
WHEN MAGADHA WAS RULED BY NANDAS.
FIRST EUROPEAN TO INVADE INDIA
PORUS PURUSHOTAMAN FOUGHT AGAINST ALEXANDER
MAURYAN
FIRST---CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
HIS GURU IS CHANAKYA----WROTE ARTHASHASTRA
CHANDRAGUPTA DEFEATED ALEXANDER COURT LEADER SELUCUS NIKETAR
SO GREEK PHILOSOPHER MEGASTHANES WAS SENT TO HIS COURT
MEGAS WROTE INDICA
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA SON IS BINDUSARA
BINDUSARA SON IS ASHOKA
First forign
er to invade india darius1
KHAROSHTI SCRIPT ( came from iran) OF
ANCIENT INDIA WAS WRTTEN FROM RIGHT TO LEFT
ASHOKA
OTHER NAME---DEVANAMPRIYA (IN ROCK EDICTS)
ONLY AT MASKI ASHOKA IS WRITTEN IN ROCKS
216 b.c KALINGA WAR AFTER THAT JOINED BUDDHISM
3RD BUDDHIST COUNCIL AT PATILIPUTRA
HE SENT HIS SON MAHINDRAN AND SANGAMITRA TO CEYLON TO SPREAD BUDDISM
OTHER NAME---DEVANAMPRIYA (IN ROCK EDICTS)
ONLY AT MASKI ASHOKA IS WRITTEN IN ROCKS
216 b.c KALINGA WAR AFTER THAT JOINED BUDDHISM
3RD BUDDHIST COUNCIL AT PATILIPUTRA
HE SENT HIS SON MAHINDRAN AND SANGAMITRA TO CEYLON TO SPREAD BUDDISM
1ST WRITTEN RECORDS
IN INDIAN HISTORY
TIMUR S AUTOBIOGRAPHY--- MALFUZAR I
TIMURI IN TURKISH LANGUAGE
AIHOLE IS CALLED TEMPLE CITY
CHARMINAR BUILT BY QULI QUTB SHAH
MAURYAS-----SARNATH PILLAR AND SANCHI STUPA IMPORTANT MONUMENTS
BUDDHA CHARITA-----ASVAGOSHA
MAHAVIBHASA------VASUMITRA
MADHYAMIKA SUTRA-----NAGARJUNA
CHARAKA SAMHITA----CHARAKA
KUSHANAS ARE CALLED AS TOCHARIANS
CAPITAL----PESHWA
SAKA ERA---78 AD
CHARAKA AND SUSRUTA (FATHER OF PLASTIC SURGERY)---TWO MEDICAL EXPERTS
4 TH BUDDHIST COUNCIL IN KASHMIR
MAHAYANA BUDDISM
ASHVAGHOSA----BUDDHACHARITRA
KANISHKA IS CALLED AS SECOND ASHOKA FOR SPREADING BUDDISM
GUPTA DYNASTY
FOUNDER---SRI GUPTA
CHANDRAGUPTA 1
OTHER NAMES----MAHARAJADHIRAJA,
SAMUDRAGUPTA
OTHER NAMES--- SAKARI,KAVIRAJA,INDIAN NAPOLEAN
CHANDRAGUPTA 2
OTHER NAMES---VIKRAMADHITHYAR
FIRST CHINESE TRAVELLER FAHEIN CAME TO INDIA DURING CHAN 2
NAVARATNAS IN HIS COURT
GUPTAS PERIOD IS CALLED AS GOLDEN AGE
NALANDA UNIVERSITY STARTED BY KUMARA GUPTA
PAINTINGS OF GUPTA SEEN IN AURANGABAD (MAHARASTRA) IN AJANTA CAVES
MEHRAULI IRON PILLAR (RUSTLESS)
HINDUISM AND SANSKRIT CAME AGAIN
VARDAMANA DYNASTY
HARSHA
CAPITAL---DHANESHWAR
THIS BOOKS------RATNAVALLI, PRIYADHARSHIKA, NAGARATHINAM
THIS COURT POET---BANABATTAR ----HARSHA CHARITHAM, KADAMBARI
HUWAN SANG CHINESE TRAVELLER VISITED HIS COURT.HIS BOOK IS SIUKI
NALANDA UNIVERSITY FLOURISHED DURING HIS REIGN
SOUTH INDIAN KINGS
OLD TAMILNADU WAS RULED BY CHERA,CHOLA,PANDIYA
CHOLA
CAPITAL----URIYUR
SYMBOL----TIGER
FLOWER-----ATHI
CHERA (KERALA PUTRAS)
CAPITAL----VANCHI
SYMBOL----BOW AND ARROW
PORT----THONDI, MUSSURI
FLOWER----PALM
SENGOOTHUVAN
PANDIYA
CAPITAL---MADURAI
SYMBOL---FISH
PORT---KORKAI
FLOWER---VEMBU
NEDUNCHEZIYAN
OLD ANDHRA RULED BY SADHAVAHANA
SADHAVAHANAS CALLED AS ANDHRA PUTRAS
CAPITAL---PIRATHISTHAN
CHALUKYAS
COINS HAD PIG SYMBOL IS CALLED AS VARAHAN
PULIKESI 2 DEFEATED PALLAVA KING MAHENDRAVARMAN IN PULLALUR WAR
NARASIMHA VARMAN LIT VATAPI IN FIRE SO HE IS CALLED VATAPIKONDAN
NARASIMAVARMAN (MAMALLAN COS HE WAS GOOD IN WARS)
PALLAVAS
CAPITAL---KANCHIPURAM
SYMBOL---NANDHI
MAHINDRAVARMAN BUILT TEMPLES AT MAMANDOOR AND PALLAVARAM
APPAR CHANGED MAHENDRAVARMAN TO SAIVAM
MAHENDRAVARMAN BUILT TRICHY MALAIKOTTAI GANESH TEMPLE
MAHENDRAVARMAN OTHER NAMES----CHITHIRAKARA PULI, VISITHIRASITHAR
MAHENDRAVARMAN WROTE THE BOOK----MATAVILASA PIRAGADANAM
PAINTINGS OF PALLAVAS IS FOUND IN CHITHANAVASAL AT PUDHUKOTTAI.
NARASIMHAVARMA PALLAVA CREATED MAHABALIPURAM
DANDI POET WROTE KAVIYA DHARISANAM
KING OF RAJASTHAN WHO WAS A VICTIM TO PATRICIDE IS RANA KUMBHA
BATTLE OF SARANGPUR---KIRTI STAMBH OF CHITTORGARH WAS BUILT TO COMMEMORATE VICTORY OF RAANA KUMBHA
DELHI SULTANATE
FIRST MUSLIM RULER TO INVADE INDIA IS MOHAMMED BIN QASIM IN 712 A.D TO SIND
MOHAMMED GHAZNI (1000-1025 AD) INVADED INDIA 17 TIMES. LAST PLACE WHERE HE LOOTED WAS SOMNATH TEMPLE IN GUJARAT
PERSIAN INTELLECT WHO CAME WITH GHAZNI WAS ALBERUNI
1191----GHORI WAS DEFEATED BY PRITHIVIRAJ CHAUHAN
1192----GHORI FINALLY DEFEATED HIM
GHORI GAVE THE RULING POWER TO HIS SLAVE QUTIDBUDDIN AIBAK
SLAVE DYNASTY
QUTIB AIBAK FOUNDER . BUILT THE QUTIB MINAR IT WAS COMPLETED BY HIS SON ILLTUMISH
HE GAVE LAKH AND LAKHS TO THE POOR SO CALLED AS LAKBHA.
HE DIED PLAYING POLO BY FALLING FROM THE HORSE
ILLTUMISH IS THE FIRST DELHI SULTANATE TO GET THE AFFIRMATION OF TURKEY CALIPH
MONGOLIAN CHENGISKAN INVADED INDIA DURING ILLTUMISH PERIOD
AFTER HIM HIS DAUGHTER RAZIYA SULTANA CAME TO POWER
RAZIYA IS THE FIRST WOMEN TO RULE DELHI
AFTER HER GIYASUDDIN BALBAN CAME TO POWER
KHILJI
JALALUDDIN KHILJI WAS KILLED BY HIS SIL ALLAUDIN KHILJI
ALAUDIN----MARKET REFORMS
SIRI CITY WAS FORMED BY ALAUDIN
AMIR KHUSRU (PARSEE)WAS HIS COURT POET. HE S CALLED AS PARROT OF HINDUSTAN
AMIR FOUNDED THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT SITAR. HE WROTE LAILA MAJUNU STORY IN PARSEE LANGUAGE.
TUQLAQ DYNASTY
MOHAMMED BIN TUQLAQ
FEROZSHAH TUQLAQ
NAZURUDDIN MOHAMMED PERIOD TIMUR INVADED INDIA
AFTER TUQLAQ THE REPRESENTATIVES OF TIMUR SAYYID RULED INDIA
SAYYID DYNASTY
THE RULERS OF SAYYID DYNASTY ARE CONSIDERED TO BE THE HEREDITARY RELATION OF PROPHET MOHAMMED
AFTER SAYYID THE LODI'S OF AFGHAN RULED INDIA
LODI DYNASTY
BAHALUL LODI IS THE FIRST AFGHAN TO RULE DELHI
SIKANDER LODI FORMED CITY AGRA
LAST KING OF LODI DYNASTY IS IBRAHIM LODI
VIJAYANAGAR AND BHAMINI KINGDOM
BHAMINI
HASAN GANGU BHAMINI FOUNDED THIS KINGDOM
BIJAPUR KING MOHAMMED ADIL SHAH GRAVE IS THE GOL GUMBAZ
ROOF OF GOLGUMBAZ IS ONE OF THE LARGEST ROOF IN THE WORLD
CHARMINAR IN HYDERABAD WAS BUILT BY QUTUB SHAHI KINGS
AHEMAD NAGAR RULED BY LADY CHAND BIWI FOUGHT AGAINST AKBAR
HYDERABAD CITY CREATED IN 1549
VIJAYANAGAR
KRISHNADEVARAYAR---COURT POET ASTHADIGGAHAS
MUGHALS
BABAR BELONGS TO TURKEY HE IS RELATIVE TO CHENGISKHAN AND TIMUR
DAULATKHAN LODI OF PUNJAB CALLED BABUR TO INVADE INDIA
1526 AD---BABAR DEFEATED IBRAHIM LODI AND FORMED THE EMPIRE
BABUR WROTE BIOGRAGHY BABAR NAMA IN TURKISH LANGUAGE
HUMAYUN
AMARKOT AKBAR WAS BORN WHEN HUMAYUN LOST HIS PLACE.
WITH THE HELP OF IRAN KING HUMAYUN WON SHER SHAH SURI
HE DIED IN STAIRS FROM HIS LIBRARY
HUMAYUN NAMA WRITTEN BY HIS SISTER GULBADAN BEGAM
WITH HELP OF UNCLE IBRAM KHAN AKBAR ASCENDED THRONE AT 13 YRS
2ND PANIPAT---- AKBAR DEFEATED HEMU (1556)
COURT PPL CALLED AS NAVARATNAS
ABUL FAZL WROTE AKBAR NAMA AND AIN I AKBARI
THULSI DAS WROTE RAMAYANA IN HINDI (RAMA CHARITHA MANAS)
SINGER IN HIS COURT IS TANSEN
AKBAR DEFENCE MINISTER ----RAJA MAN SINGH
REVENUE MINISTER---RAJA THODARMALL
INTELLIGENT----BIRBAL
AKBAR STARTED NEW RELIGION----DIN ILAHI
ABOLISHED THE JIZIYA TAX
DEFENCE ADMIN IS CALLED AS MANSABDARI SYSTEM
HE CREATED FATHEPUR SIKRI AND BULANDARWAZA TO CELEBRATE THE VICTORY OF
AKBAR SON SALEEM CALLED AS JAHANGIR
JAHANGIR WEDDED NOORJAHAN (MEHARUNISA)
PAINTINGS REACHED THE ZENITH DURING JAHANGIR PERIOD
HE KILLED THE 5TH SIKH GURU ARJUN SINGH
THE BIGGEST MOSQUE IN INDIA IS THE JAMMA MASJID BUILT BY SHAHJAHAN
TAJ MAHAL ARCHITECT IS USTAD ISA
MUMTAZ REAL NAME IS ARUZUMAN BANU BEGAM
AURANGAZEB REAL NAME IS ALAMGIR HE WAS CALLED THE LIVING SAINT. HE WAS A VEENA PLAYER
9 TH SIKH GURU TEG BAHADUR WAS KILLED BY HIM
HE AGAIN IMPOSED JIZIYA TAX ON HINDUS
SOUTH INDIA
LATER CHOLAS
RAJARAJA CHOLAS REAL NAME IS ARULMOZHIVARMAN
RAJACHOLAS ELDER BROTHER IS ADTHIYA KARIKALAN
TANJORE BRIHADEESWAR TEMPLE WAS BUILT BY RAJA RAJA. IT IS THE WORLD FIRST COMPLETELY GRANITE TEMPLE
GANGAIKONDA CHOLA PURAM-----RAJENDRA CHOLA
TANJORE TEMPLE AND GANGAIKONDA CHOLA PURAM TEMPLE ARE ENLISTED IN UNESCO HERITAGE SITE
SHERSHAH SURI-------AGRA AND SASARAM JOINED BY(SADAK I AZAM) OR PRECURSOR OF GRAND TRUNK ROAD BUILT
MARATHAS
FATHER OF SHIVAJI IS SHAJI BHONSLE AND MOTHER JIJA BHAI
GURU OF SHIVAJI ----DHADHAJI KONDADEV
COURT MINSTER CALLED AS ASTAPRADHAN
MODI SCRIPT BELONGS TO MARATAS
THE TAX OF MARATHAS ----CHOWTH, SARDESMUKI
AURANGAZEB SENT TO CAPTURE SHIVAJI
BIJAIPUR SULTAN SENT ABSAL KHAN TO CAPTURE SHIVAJI
SHIVAJI LOOTED TWICE THE MUGHAL PLACE SURAT.
AURANGAZEB JAILED SHIVAJI AT AGRA
EUROPEANS
FIRST PORTUGUESE CAME
1498 AD VASCO DAGAMA CAME TO CALICUT WELCOMED BY KING ZAMORIN
VASCO DAGAMA 1501 STARTED TRADING CENTER AT CANNANORE
KOZHIKODE, COCHIN, CANNONORE--ARE TRADING CENTER AT PORTUGUESE
FRANCISCO DE ALMEDA---FIRST VICEROY, BLUE WATER POLICY (INDIAN SEA SHOULD BE RULED BY PORTUGUESE)
ALPHOSO ALBUKER 2ND GOVERNOR
1510 HE CAPTURED GOA
SEVAPPA NAICKER GAVE PERMISSION FOR PROTUGUESE TO TRADE IN NAGAPATTINAM
TAMILNADU----TUTICORIN,NAGA,CHENNAI(SANTHOME) ARE PROTUGUESE SETTLEMENTS
DUTCH
1608--DEVANAMPATTINAM
DANISH COMPANY (1616)
TRANQUEBAR IN 1620
ENGLISH (1600)
PERMITTED BY JAHANGIR
ST DAVID FORT IN CUDDALORE
ST GEORGE FORT BUILDING STARTED IN 1639. FIRST GOVERNOR IS ARAN BECKER
MADRAS WAS CREATED BY FRANCIS DAY
FRENCH
PONDICHERRY FRENCH GOVERNOR GENERAL IMPORTANT IS DUPLEIX
SAINT LOUIS FORT IN PONDY
GOVERNOR GENERALS
WARREN HASTINGS FIRST GOVERNOR GENERAL.
REGULATING ACT 1773----WARREN HASTNGS THT POSITION
CORNWALLIS FATHER OF INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE. HE CAME TO INDIA AFTER GETTING DEFEATED IN AMERICAN DEMOCRATIC WAR. HE SIGNED TREATY OF SRIRANGAPATTINAM WITH TIPPU AFTER 3RD MYSORE WAR
SUBSIDARY ALLIANCE BROUGHT BY WELLESLEY
SATI ABOLISHED BY WILLIAM BENTICK
MACCAULAY WAS LAW MEMBER IN BENTICK'S COUNCIL
THE CRIMINAL LAW WRITTEN BY MACCALAUY
MACCAULAY REPORT (1835) ---SCHOOLS HAD ENGLISH AS MAIN LANGUAGE
WILLIAM SLEEMAN SUPPRESED THUGS DURING BENTICK PERIOD
TAJ MAHAL ABOLISHSION WAS DECIDED DURING HIS PERIOD THN DROPPED
DALHOUSIE
FIRST RAIL FROM BOMBAY TO THANE 1853 STARTED
FIRST POST OFFICE STARTED IN KARACHI 1852
DOCTRINE OF LAPSE PPL WITHOUT SON MUST GIVE THEIR PLACE
ANNEXED JHANSI,SATARA,NAGPUR.
DOCTRINE BECAME A REASON FOR THE INDIAN INDEPENDENCE WAR IN 1857
WIDOW REMARRIAGE WAS IMPLEMENTED.
CHARLES WOOD DESPATCH FOR EDUCATION RELEASED.
VICEROY
BATTLE OF BUXAR----MIR JAFAR GOT THE THRONE
INC----
IN OCT 1943----INTERIM GOVT OF INDIA WAS FORMED BY BOSE
JAYAPRAKASH NARAYAN----RAN AWAY FROM HAZARIBAGH PRISON AND JOINED QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
WORLD HISTORY
NAPOLEON
CARSIKA ISLAND IN ITALY 1769 AUG 15TH WAS BORN
YOUNG AGE WORKED FOR FRENCH ARMY
1804 BECAME FRENCH PRESIDENT
AUSTRIA, PURSIA
KARL MARX
FATHER OF COMMUNISM
BORN IN GERMANY MAY 15TH 1808
WORLD LABOURS JOIN TOGETHER WAS IS SAYING
ENGEL AND HE RELEASED COMMUSIT ORDER IN 1808
DAS CAPITAL HIS BOOK (3 PARTS)
NEWYARK TRIBUNE NEWSPAPER HE WAS WORKING FOR
DEIED IN LONDON 1883
LENIN CHANGED RUSSIA AS COMMUNIST COUNTRY
1991 SOVIET UNION BROKE
CHINA, NORTH KOREA, CUBA ARE SOME COMMUNIST COUNTRIES.
WORLD FIRST TIME IN DEMOCRATIC NATION COMMUNIST PARTY CAME TO RULE IN KERALA 1956
ABRAHAM LINCON
abolished racisim in america. HE WAS THE SON OF A COBLLER BORN IN 1809
STOREKEEPER,POSTMASTER JOBS HE DID. WHEN HE WORKED AS A LAWYER HE GOT THE NAME HONEST ABE.1861 BECAME 16TH PRESIDENT OF AMERICA.
BALLOTS ARE STRONGER THAN BULLETS FAMOUS SAYING
HIS GETISBERG SPEECH WAS FAMOUS
GOVT OF THE PPL BY THE PPL FOR THE PPL.
ONE OF THE PRESIDENT WHO WAS SHOT DEAD.
1865 APRIL 14TH WAS KILLED IN A DRAMA AUDITORIUM
HITLER
1889 BORN IN AUSTRALIA
STARTED LIFE AS PAINTER THEN JOINED GERMAN ARMY
DURING FIRST WORLD WAR HE WAS A SOLIDIER
MEIN KAMPF ( MY STRUGGLE) IS HITLER'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY
NAZI PARTY STARTED . SWASTHIK WAS NASI SYMBOL.
1933 HE BECAME CHANCELLOR OF GERMANY
FUHRER(LEADER) TITLE HE KEPT FOR HIM
HITLER BECOS OF RACISIM KILLED 6 MILLION JEWS
HITLER'S POLAND INVASION IS THE REASON FOR 2ND WORLD WAR
1945 APRIL 29 HITLER MARRIED EVA BRAN
1945 APRIL 30 HITLER COMMITED SUICIDE WITH HIS WIFE.THE FEAR OF DEFEAT WAS THE REASON FOR HIS SUICIDE
MUSSOLINI
BORN IN 1883 IN ITALY.
Originally a member of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and editor of the Avanti! from 1912 to 1914, Mussolini was expelled from the PSI due to his opposition to the party's stance on neutrality in World War I. Mussolini denounced the PSI.
19919 started fascist party.1922 he became the prime minister.
ANCIENT ROMANS BLACK DRESS WAS WOREN BY FASCIST
THE DUCE (LEADER) HE KEPT TITLE FOR HIM
1935----HE SIGNED ROMAN BERLIN AXIS WITH HITLER.
1939-- GERMANY AND HE SIGNED AN IRON AGREEMENT
BY CONCORDAT AGREEMENT MUSSOLINI ACCEPTED POPE LIOUPALT 3 AS VATICAN DEMOCRATIC LEADER
WORLD SMALLEST COUNTRY VATICAN WAS WITHIN ITALY
SICILY WAS CAPTURED BY ALLIES AGAINST HITLER AND MUSSOLINI
1943--JUNE 25 REMOVED FROM POSITION
1945 HE WAS HANGED BY HIS ENEMIES
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AMBER CITY NEARBY CITY-----JAIPUR
SUNGA---PUSHYMITRA
NANDA-----MAHAPADMA
SATAVAHANA-------SIMUKHA
VARDHAMANA----PRABAHARA
TOBACCO CROP WAS INTRODUCED DURING REIGN OF JAHANGIR
FIRST PREACHER TO PREACH IN HINDI IS RAMANANDA
AKBAR'S TOMB -----SIKANDER
BRIHATSAMHITA----VISHAKADATTA
MRICHA KATIKA---VARAHAMIHIRA
MUDRARAKSHASA-----VISHAKADATTA
PANCHATANTRA---
FERGUSSAN CALLED JAMI MASJID AS ROMANCE IN STONE
CHALUKYAS TEMPLE AT AIHOLE
KISHNADEARAYA SUCCEDED BY ACHUTA RAYA
TENTH SIKH GURU----govind singh
allasani peddanna-----manucharita telugu
sufis movement people were muslim saints
1529---ghagra---mahmud lodi
1528 malwa---medina rai
1527 kanwah----rana sanga
1526--panipat--
gupta period first time civil an criminal laws diffirentiated
allaudin khilji-implemented reforms price of all commodities
seperate dept of slavery by feroz shah tuqlaq
bamini---1347
shiaji was follower and student of ramdas
decline of buddhism reason-----lack of royal patronage, corruption of sangas, introduction idol worship
revival of hiduism under mauryas not a reason
devotional songs of tukaram----in marathi
king of DEVAGIRI DEFEATED BY ALAUDIN KHILJI----RAMACHANDRA DEVA
KUSHANA DYNASTY FOUNDER---KUJALA KADIPISES
LAST MAURYAN----PUSYAMITRA
KUSHINAGARA---UP BUDDHA DIED DER
CHAITYAS---PRAYER HALL
VIHARAS---MONASTRIES
THIRTHANKAR---PROPHET
SWEDAMBAR---WEAR WHITE DRESS
DHAMMA---PRAKIT WORD
BIMBISARA----RESPOSIBLE FOR MAKING MAGADA POWERFUL STATE
VIKRAMA---SAKA---GUPTA---HARSHA
BAHMANI-----GOLGUMBAZ IN BIJAPUR SHOWS THE SKILL OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF THIS KINGDOM
AKBAR WAS ABLY ASSISTED BY HIS REVENUE MINISTER RAJA TODARMAL
SLAVE------1206--1290 A.D
TUQHLAQ----
SAYYID---
LODI---1451----1526 A.D
FAMOUS VAIKUNDA PERUMAL TEMPLE AT KANCHIPURAM------RAJASHIMHA
CAPITAL OF CHALUKYAS-----VATABI
DRAMA LITERATURE BOOK WAS WRITTEN HARSHA IS PRIYADARSHIKA
Awesome
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